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<p><b>New page</b></p><div>== 1. Definition ==<br />
<br />
An '''affix''' is a [[formative]] attached to a [[stem]]. Affixes, like [[stem|stems]], are parts of the [[grammatical word]] (i.e. they are parts of the syntactic X<sup>0</sup>). Affixes need stems as their grammatical hosts, they necessarily cooccur with stems.<br />
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Affixes, unlike [[clitics]], are categorially restrictive, i.e. they attach only to stems of a certain [[parts of speech]]. (English affix ''re-'' attaches only to verbs: ''re-use'', but not numerals: *''re-five''.)<br />
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Affixes usually have a more restricted phonology, segments used for affixes in a language are only a subpart of the phoneme system. Affixes are usually shorter than stems, are phonologically bound, have more abstract meaning than stems and occur in a fixed order (but see counterexamples below).<br />
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Many simple [[morpheme]]s are exclusively segmental and consist of a single affix. Therefore in a simplified view affixes are said to bear meanings, instead of saying it&rsquo;s the morphemes which bear meaning. For an affix which is a part complex morpheme, this view is somewhat misleading. For such examples see [[simulfix]], [[morpheme]] or [[formative]].<br />
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== 2. Examples ==<br />
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English (West-Germanic, Indo-European) <br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''''re'''-write-'''s'''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''AGAIN'''-write-'''3s.PRES'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Akkadian]] (East-Semitic, Afroasiatic)<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''''i'''-m'''<ta>'''raṣ-'''ā'''''<br />
|-<br />
| '''3'''-get.ill'''<PERF>'''-'''FEM.pl'''<br />
|-<br />
| ‘They (feminine) got ill.’<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
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== 3. Subtypes ==<br />
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=== 3.1. Position ===<br />
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Affixes vary in their position relative to the stem: [[prefix]] (precedes the stem), [[suffix]] (follows the stem), [[infix]] (is in the stem). All three types can be seen in the examples above, but here is a general scheme:<br />
<br />
{| {{Prettytable}}<br />
|-<br />
|align="center"| prefix <br />
|align="center"| suffix <br />
|align="center"| infix<br />
|-<br />
| '''pf'''-stem || stem-'''sf''' || st'''<inf>'''em<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
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=== 3.2. Inter-Affix Dependencies ===<br />
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Various dependencies can be found between affixes. One affix may change the meaning of another affix:<br />
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German (West-Germanic, Indo-European)<br />
<br />
{| {{Prettytable}}<br />
|-<br />
| ''setz-'''t''''' || '''''Ge'''-setz'' || '''''ge'''-setz-'''t'''''<br />
|-<br />
| set-'''3s.PRES''' || '''some.thing'''-set, ‘law’ || '''PTCP'''-set-'''PTCP'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
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The occurrence of an affix may depend on another affix (coocurrence dependency):<br />
<br />
Czech (West-Slavic, Indo-European)<br />
<br />
{| {{Prettytable}}<br />
|-<br />
| ''star-'''ší''''' || '''''nej'''-star-'''ší''''' || ''*'''nej'''-star''<br />
|-<br />
| old-'''COMPARATIVE''' || '''SUPERLATIVE'''-old-'''SUPERLATIVE''' ||rowspan="2" valign="top"| ''ungrammatical''<br />
|-<br />
| ‘older’ || ‘oldest’ <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
A [[prefix]] and a [[suffix]] which ''only'' occur together are called a [[circumfix]]. The Czech and German examples above are not circumfixes in a proper sense. For details see [[circumfix]].<br />
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=== 3.3. Phonology does not matter ===<br />
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==== Phonologically bound affixes ====<br />
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All of the above examples were affixes that are phonologically bound, i.e. they are a part of a [[phonological word]]. A [[Turkish]] example from Bickel & Nichols (in press) shall demonstrate this once again. (All vowels within the domain of a Turkish phonological word [[Vowel harmony|harmonize]].):<br />
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tan'''-ış-tır-ıl-a-ma-dık-lar-ın-dan-dır'''<br />
<br />
know'''-RECIP-CAUS-PASS-POT-NEG-NZR-PL-3POSS-ABL-3COP'''<br />
<br />
‘It is because they cannot be introduced to each other.’<br />
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(lit. ‘[it] is from their not being able to be made known to each other.’)<br />
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==== Phonologically free affixes ====<br />
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Affixes need not be necessarily phonologically bound but can be [[phonological word]]s of their own. What makes them affixes is being a syntactically unseparable part of the X<sup>0</sup>. The following [[Lai Chin]] sentence consists of one [[grammatical word]] having three affixes, but phonologically, it is three words. ''Nhaa'' and ''làay'' are phonologically free suffixes, whereas ''na-'' is a phonologically bound prefix.<br />
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Lai Chin (Example from Bickel & Nichols (in press))<br />
<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| phonological words || (<sub>ω</sub> na-tuk) || (<sub>ω</sub> '''nhaa''') || (<sub>ω</sub> '''làay''')<br />
|-<br />
| grammatical words ||valign="top"| [<sub>gw</sub> na-tuk <br />
|valign="top"| '''-nhaa''' <br />
|valign="top"| '''-làay''']<br />
|-<br />
| || 2s.A-hit.with.stick || '''-3p.P''' || '''-FUT'''<br />
|-<br />
| |<br />
|colspan="3"| ‘You will hit them.’<br />
|}<br />
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Even English has some phonologically free words which can be analyzed as infixes (Examples from Bauer 1983): <br />
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[<sub>gw</sub> (<sub>ω</sub> kanga)'''<(<sub>ω</sub> bloody)>'''(<sub>ω</sub> roo)]<br />
<br />
[<sub>gw</sub> (<sub>ω</sub> guaran)'''<(<sub>ω</sub> friggin)>'''(<sub>ω</sub> tee)] <br />
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==== Detached affixes ====<br />
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Detached affixes are phonologically bound, but their phonological host is not part of their grammatical host. A [[Santali]] example (taken from Neukom 2001:100) shall illustrate this:<br />
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{|<br />
|-<br />
| phonological words || (<sub>ω</sub> əuri'''=e''') || (<sub>ω</sub> hɛ̃g-re'''=ɲ''') || (<sub>ω</sub> dal-aka-e-tahɛn-a)<br />
|-<br />
| grammatical words ||valign="top"| [<sub>gw</sub> əuri] [<sub>gw</sub> '''e-''' <br />
|valign="top"| hɛ̃g-re] [<sub>gw</sub> '''ɲ-'''<br />
|valign="top"| dal-aka-e-tahɛn-a]<br />
|-<br />
| || until='''3s.S-''' || confess-LOC='''1s.S-''' || strike-CONT:ACT-3s.O-CONT-IND<br />
|-<br />
| |<br />
|colspan="3"| ‘I will continue to strike him until he confesses.’<br />
|}<br />
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The Santali verbal prefixes for [[subject]] [[agreement]] are phonologically bound to any [[phonological word]] that immediately precedes the verb. In cases where the [[intonational phrase]] begins with a verb, these subject agreement markers appear as the last suffix on that very verb form. For details see Neukom (2001: 113ff).<br />
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=== 3.4. Quirky cases ===<br />
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==== Lexical affixes ====<br />
Affixes usually have more abstract meaning than stems. However, in [[Nuu-chah-nulth]] we find affixes with very concrete meaning, called lexical affixes:<br />
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Nuu-chah-nulth ([[Nootka]]), ([[Wakashan]]), (Nakayama 1997:38)<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| ''ʔuqɬaːpʼaƛ'' || ''qʷayacʼiːk,'' || ''takaːtisˀaqƛq.''<br />
|-<br />
| ''ʔuqɬaːp-ʼaƛ'' || ''qʷayacʼiːk,'' || ''tak'''-aːt-ʻis-'''ˀaˑqƛ-q.''<br />
|-<br />
| thinking-TEL || wolf || head.to'''-move.downstream-on.the.shore'''-FUT-SUB.3 <br />
|-<br />
| thought || wolf || will.probably.go.down.the.stream <br />
|-<br />
|colspan="3"| &lsquo;Wolves thought that he would probably go down the stream of the current.&rsquo; <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
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Nuu-cha-nulth ([[Nootka]]), ([[Wakashan]]), (Nakayama 1997:43)<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| ''hiyisimyiɬˀaƛqʷin''<br />
|-<br />
| ''hiɬ'''-ʻis-imɬ'''-'''ʻiɬ'''-ʼaƛ-qʷin''<br />
|-<br />
| there'''-on.the.beach-in.a.group-in.the.house'''-TEL-COND.1pl<br />
|-<br />
| &lsquo;We used to get together in a house on the beach.&rsquo;<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
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==== Free order of affixes ====<br />
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In [[Kusunda]] (a language isolate of Nepal), at least some verbal suffixes may appear in random order (Watters 2005:70):<br />
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{|<br />
|-<br />
| tsi || sip'''-tsi-n''' <br />
|-<br />
| I || enter'''-1-REAL''' <br />
|-<br />
|colspan="2" | ''I entered.'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
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is in free variation with:<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| tsi || sip'''-n-tsi'''<br />
|-<br />
| I || enter'''-REAL-1''' <br />
|-<br />
|colspan="2" | ''I entered.'' <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
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In [[Chintang]], a [[Kiranti]] language of Nepal, we find a random order of prefixes (Bickel et al., Ms.):<br />
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{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''u-kha-ma-'''cop-yokt-e<br />
|-<br />
| '''3nsA-1nsP-NEG'''-see-NEG-PAST<br />
|-<br />
| ''They didn't see us.''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
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is in free variation with:<br />
{|<br />
|-<br />
| '''u-ma-kha-'''cop-yokt-e<br />
|-<br />
| '''kha-u-ma-'''cop-yokt-e<br />
|-<br />
| '''ma-u-kha-'''cop-yokt-e<br />
|-<br />
| '''kha-ma-u-'''cop-yokt-e<br />
|-<br />
| '''ma-kha-u-'''cop-yokt-e<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
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== See also ==<br />
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dictionary article [[affix]]<br />
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== References ==<br />
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*{{:Bauer 1988}}<br />
*Bauer, Laurie. 1983. ''English Word-formation.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<br />
*Bickel, Balthasar & Nichols, Johanna. in press. ''Inflectional morphology.'' In: Shopen, Timothy [ed.], ''Language typology and syntactic description''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (revised second edition).<br />
*Bickel, Balthasar & Banjade, Goma & Gaenszle Martin & Lieven Elena & Paudyal, Netra & Rai, Ichcha & Rai Manoj & Rai, Novel Kishore & Stoll, Sabine. Manuscript, 2005. ''News from Himalayas: languages with free prefix ordering.'' PDF [http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~ff/cpdp/frameset_publ.html| http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~ff/cpdp/frameset_publ.html]<br />
*Nakayama, Toshihide. 1997. ''Discourse-Pragmatic Dynamism in Nuu-cha-nulth (Nootka) Morphosyntax'' UMI Dissertation 9809637<br />
*Neukom, Lukas. 2001. ''Santali.'' Lincom Europa.<br />
*Watters, David E. 2005. ''Notes on Kusunda grammar: a linguistic isolate of Nepal''. National Foundation for the Development of Indigenous Nationalities. Kathmandu, Nepal.<br />
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